Phonological Disorder and Types of Phonological Processes: When learning to speak, typically developing children use phonological processes, or patterns of sound errors, to simplify their speech. A phonological disorder develops when phonological processes continue past the point at which the majority of ordinarily developing children stop using them, or when the processes are significantly different from what is typical.
In the realm of linguistics, phonological processes play a pivotal role in shaping how we produce and perceive speech sounds. Understanding these processes is essential for grasping the intricacies of language development and communication. In this comprehensive article, we will explore various types of phonological processes, shedding light on their mechanisms and significance in the broader context of linguistics. So, let’s embark on a journey to uncover the mysteries behind speech sounds and the phonological processes that govern them.
Phonological Disorders
Phonological disorders, also known as speech sound disorders, are a type of communication disorder that affects a person’s ability to produce speech sounds correctly. These disorders are more common in children but can also be present in adults. The primary difficulty lies in the individual’s ability to organize and coordinate the sounds required for speech production.
There are two main types of phonological disorders:
- Articulation Disorders: This type of disorder involves difficulties in forming individual speech sounds. For example, a child might have trouble pronouncing certain sounds, such as “s,” “r,” “l,” or “th.”
- Phonological Process Disorders: In this type of disorder, a child has difficulty applying the appropriate phonological rules that govern sound patterns in a language. For instance, a child might simplify certain sounds or sound combinations, like saying “wabbit” instead of “rabbit.”
Causes of phonological disorders can vary and may include
- Developmental Causes: Some children may experience delays in speech sound development as part of normal language development. However, if these delays persist beyond a certain age, they may be classified as phonological disorders.
- Structural or Physical Issues: Some children may have physical abnormalities or structural issues with their speech organs (e.g., tongue, lips, palate), which can affect their speech sound production.
- Hearing Impairment: Hearing plays a crucial role in speech sound development. Children with hearing loss may struggle to produce speech sounds correctly if they can’t hear them accurately.
- Neurological Factors: In some cases, phonological disorders may be associated with neurological conditions or developmental disorders.
Types of Phonological Processes
Analysis makes it easier to spot patterns like the replacement of voiced for voiceless sounds, the replacement of fricatives with stops, or the replacement of lingua-velar for lingua-alveolar sounds in syllable structure. (e.g., place errors—[k] S /t/, /d/ S [g]). Another example is a child who speaks with the proper intonation and intonation patterns, but who fronts consonants (e.g., /k/ S [t], /g/ S [d]) instead of using accurate articulation. Substituting sounds that should be produced in the rear or posterior of the oral cavity for sounds that should be produced in the front of the mouth cavity (in a way that is consistent with the intended sound), the young child is “fronting” consonants in this instance.
Phonological processes analysis is a technique for detecting patterns in errors. Before delving into the interpretation of such studies, we’d like to go through some of the most common patterns found in young children’s speech. Different authors employed various nomenclature of the majority of phonological processes. Although not thorough, this list includes the majority of the regular patterns noticed in ordinarily developing children and has been extensively used to investigate the sound difficulties of children with developmental delays in photography.
Whole Word & Syllable Patterns
Changes in whole word and syllable patterns have an impact on the target word’s syllable structure.
- Final consonant deletion: Deletion of the final consonant in a word.
- Unstressed syllable deletion (weak syllable deletion): An unstressed syllable is deleted, often at the beginning of a word, sometimes in the middle.
- Reduplication: A syllable or a portion of a syllable is repeated or duplicated, usually becoming CVCV.
- Consonant cluster simplification: A consonant cluster is simplified by a substitution for one member of the cluster.
- Consonant cluster reduction: One or more elements of a consonant cluster are deleted.
- Epenthesis: A segment, often the unstressed vowel [ə], is inserted.
- Metathesis: There is a transposition or reversal of two segments (sounds) in a word.
- Coalescence: Characteristics of features from two adjacent sounds are combined so that one sound replaces two other sounds.
Assimilatory (Harmony) Patterns
Errors of such kind usually seen to have characteristics like the influence of the first sound on the next sound. As a result, the two parts resemble one another more and may even become identical (thus, the word harmony). Assimilation can take different forms.
- Velar assimilation: A nonvelar sound is assimilated (changed) to a velar sound because of the influence, or dominance, of a velar.
- Nasal assimilation: A non-nasal sound is assimilated and replaced by a nasal because of the influence, or dominance, of a nasal consonant.
- Labial assimilation: A nonlabial sound is assimilated to a labial consonant because of the influence of a labial consonant.
Segment Change (Substitution) Patterns
In these patterns, one sound is swapped out for another, with the replacement sound reflecting changes in the place or style of articulation or another variation from how a sound is typically produced.
- Fronting: Substitutions are produced anteriorly to or forward of the standard production.
- Backing: Sounds are substituted or replaced by segments produced posterior to, or further back in, the oral cavity than the standard production.
- Stopping: Fricatives or affricates are replaced by stops.
- Gliding of liquids: Prevocalic liquids are replaced by glides.
- Affrication: Fricatives are replaced by affricates.
- Vocalization: Liquids or nasals are replaced by vowels
- Denasalization: Nasals are replaced by homorganic stops (place of articulation is similar to target sound).
- Deaffrication: Affricates are replaced by fricatives.
- Glottal replacement: Glottal stops replace sounds usually in either intervocalic or final position.
- Prevocalic voicing: Voiceless consonants (obstruents) in the prevocalic position are voiced.
- Devoicing of final consonants: Voiced obstruents are devoiced in final position.
Detailed Outline of Phonological Disorders and Types of Phonological Processess
The following table provides a detailed outline of the various types of phonological processes:
Heading | Sub-Heading |
| 1. Assimilation | 1.1 Regressive Assimilation |
| 1.2 Progressive Assimilation | |
| 2. Dissimilation | 2.1 Contact Dissimilation |
| 2.2 Remote Dissimilation | |
| 3. Deletion | 3.1 Final Consonant Deletion |
| 3.2 Cluster Reduction | |
| 4. Epenthesis | 4.1 Prothesis |
| 4.2 Epithesis | |
| 5. Metathesis | 5.1 Simple Metathesis |
| 5.2 Vowel Metathesis | |
| 6. Reduplication | 6.1 Total Reduplication |
| 6.2 Partial Reduplication | |
| 7. Vowel Reduction | 7.1 High Vowel Reduction |
| 7.2 Mid Vowel Reduction | |
| 7.3 Low Vowel Reduction | |
| 8. Stress Shift | 8.1 Initial Stress Shift |
| 8.2 Final Stress Shift | |
| 8.3 Penultimate Stress Shift | |
| 9. Tone Assimilation | 9.1 Downstep Assimilation |
| 9.2 Upstep Assimilation | |
| 10. Tone Sandhi | 10.1 Register-Tone Sandhi |
| 10.2 Contour-Tone Sandhi | |
| 11. Coalescence | 11.1 Consonant Coalescence |
| 11.2 Vowel Coalescence | |
| 12. Labialization | 12.1 Peripheral Labialization |
| 12.2 Velarization | |
| 13. Palatalization | 13.1 Fronting Palatalization |
| 13.2 Backing Palatalization | |
| 14. Velarization | 14.1 Fronting Velarization |
| 14.2 Backing Velarization | |
| 15. Glottalization | 15.1 Ejective Glottalization |
| 15.2 Implosive Glottalization | |
| 16. Fortition | 16.1 Aspiration Fortition |
| 16.2 Spirantization Fortition | |
| 17. Lenition | 17.1 Fricative Lenition |
| 17.2 Approximant Lenition | |
| 18. Final Devoicing | 18.1 Voiced to Voiceless Devoicing |
| 18.2 Voiceless to Voiced Devoicing | |
| 19. Initial Voicing | 19.1 Voiceless to Voiced Initial Voicing |
| 19.2 Voiced to Voiceless Initial Voicing | |
| 20. Gliding | 20.1 Liquid Gliding |
| 20.2 Vowel Gliding | |
| 21. Epenthetic Vowels | 21.1 Prevocalic Epenthesis |
| 21.2 Postvocalic Epenthesis | |
| 22. Debuccalization | 22.1 Fricative Debuccalization |
| 22.2 Affricate Debuccalization | |
| 23. Rhotacization | 23.1 Rhotic Vowel Rhotacization |
| 23.2 Non-Rhotic Vowel Rhotacization | |
| 24. Labial Constriction | 24.1 Rounded Vowel Labial Constriction |
| 24.2 Unrounded Vowel Labial Constriction | |
| 25. Glottal Replacement | 25.1 Glottal Stop Replacement |
| 25.2 Glottal Fricative Replacement |
1. Assimilation
Assimilation is a phonological process in which a sound becomes similar or identical to a neighboring sound. It occurs due to the influence of adjacent sounds, making pronunciation more efficient and smooth.
1.1 Regressive Assimilation
Regressive assimilation, also known as anticipatory assimilation, involves the modification of a sound to match a following sound. For example, when “handbag” is pronounced as “hangbag” due to the influence of the following /g/ sound.
1.2 Progressive Assimilation
Progressive assimilation, also known as perseverative assimilation, occurs when a sound changes to resemble a preceding sound. An example is the word “cats” pronounced as “cac” where the /t/ sound is influenced by the preceding /k/ sound.
2. Dissimilation
Dissimilation is the opposite of assimilation, where a sound becomes less similar to a neighboring sound to avoid redundancy or enhance clarity.
2.1 Contact Dissimilation
Contact dissimilation takes place when two neighboring sounds become less similar due to their close proximity. For instance, “elephant” pronounced as “elepant” with the two /e/ sounds becoming less alike.
2.2 Remote Dissimilation
Remote dissimilation occurs when two non-adjacent sounds in a word become less similar. An example is “comfortable” pronounced as “cumftable” where the /r/ and /t/ sounds are dissimilated.
3. Deletion
Deletion involves the omission of a sound or group of sounds within a word.
3.1 Final Consonant Deletion
Final consonant deletion happens when the final consonant of a word is omitted. For instance, “cat” pronounced as “ca.”
3.2 Cluster Reduction
Cluster reduction occurs when a consonant cluster in a word is simplified by omitting one of the consonants. For example, “splash” pronounced as “spash” by omitting the /l/ sound.
4. Epenthesis
Epenthesis is the insertion of an additional sound, typically a vowel, into a word.
4.1 Prothesis
Prothesis involves adding a sound at the beginning of a word. For instance, “blue” pronounced as “eblue.”
4.2 Epithesis
Epithesis occurs when an extra sound is inserted in the middle of a word. An example is “athlete” pronounced as “ath-e-lete.”
5. Metathesis
Metathesis refers to the reordering of sounds in a word, leading to a change in the word’s pronunciation.
5.1 Simple Metathesis
Simple metathesis involves the switching of two adjacent sounds. For example, “ask” pronounced as “aks.”
5.2 Vowel Metathesis
Vowel metathesis occurs when two vowels in a word change places. An example is “comfortable” pronounced as “comfterble.”
6. Reduplication
Reduplication is a phonological process in which a part or the whole of a word is repeated.
6.1 Total Reduplication
Total reduplication involves repeating the entire word. For instance, “mama” or “dada.”
6.2 Partial Reduplication
Partial reduplication entails repeating only a part of the word. An example is “wawa” for “water.”
8. Vowel Reduction
Vowel reduction refers to the modification of a vowel sound to a more centralized or neutral position.
7.1 High Vowel Reduction
High vowel reduction occurs when a high vowel (i.e., /i/ or /u/) becomes more centralized and less tense. For example, “see” pronounced as “si.”
7.2 Mid Vowel Reduction
Mid vowel reduction involves the centralization of a mid vowel (i.e., /e/ or /o/). For instance, “day” pronounced as “dey.”
7.3 Low Vowel Reduction
Low vowel reduction occurs when a low vowel (i.e., /a/) becomes more centralized. An example is “cot” pronounced as “caht.”
8. Stress Shift
Stress shift involves the change in the position of the primary accent within a word.
8.1 Initial Stress Shift
Initial stress shift happens when the primary accent moves to the first syllable of a word. For instance, “reBEL” becomes “REbel.”
8.2 Final Stress Shift
Final stress shift occurs when the primary accent moves to the last syllable of a word. In the base word “reBEL,” the stress is on the first syllable ‘re-‘ (re-BEL). However, when the suffix ‘-lious’ is added to form the word “reBELlious,” the stress shifts to the final syllable ‘-lious’ (re-bel-LI-ous).
8.3 Penultimate Stress Shift
Penultimate stress shift involves the movement of the primary accent to the second-to-last syllable in a word. For example, “phoTOgraph” becomes “PHOtoGraph.”
9. Tone Assimilation
Tone assimilation is a phonological process in tonal languages where the tone of one syllable is influenced by the tone of an adjacent syllable.
9.1 Downstep Assimilation
Downstep assimilation occurs when a high-tone syllable is followed by a low-tone syllable, causing a downward shift in the pitch of the low-tone syllable.
9.2 Upstep Assimilation
Upstep assimilation happens when a low-tone syllable is followed by a high-tone syllable, resulting in an upward shift in the pitch of the high-tone syllable.
10. Tone Sandhi
Tone sandhi refers to the alteration of tones in consecutive words due to their interaction in tonal languages.
10.1 Register-Tone Sandhi
Register-tone sandhi occurs when the tone of a word changes based on the tone of the preceding or following word.
10.2 Contour-Tone Sandhi
Contour-tone sandhi involves changes in the tone of a word based on the tonal contour of the preceding or following word.
11. Coalescence
Coalescence is a phonological process where two distinct sounds merge to form a single new sound.
11.1 Consonant Coalescence
Consonant coalescence occurs when two adjacent consonants combine to form a new consonant sound. An example is “handbag” pronounced as “hambag.”
11.2 Vowel Coalescence
Vowel coalescence involves the merging of two adjacent vowel sounds into one sound. For instance, “real” pronounced as “ril.”
12. Labialization
Labialization is a phonological process in which a non-labial sound becomes more like a labial sound due to the influence of nearby labial sounds.
12.1 Peripheral Labialization
Peripheral labialization occurs when a non-labial sound becomes more like a labial sound due to the influence of a labial sound in the same word.
12.2 Velarization
Velarization involves a non-labial sound becoming more like a labial sound due to the influence of a labial sound in a neighboring word.
13. Palatalization
Palatalization is a phonological process in which a sound becomes more like a palatal sound under the influence of a nearby palatal sound.
13.1 Fronting Palatalization
Fronting palatalization occurs when a sound moves forward in the mouth and becomes more like a palatal sound due to the influence of a palatal sound within the word.
13.2 Backing Palatalization
Backing palatalization involves a sound moving backward in the mouth and becoming more like a palatal sound due to the influence of a palatal sound in a neighboring word.
14. Velarization
Velarization is a phonological process where a sound becomes more like a velar sound under the influence of a nearby velar sound.
14.1 Fronting Velarization
Fronting velarization occurs when a sound moves forward in the mouth and becomes more like a velar sound due to the influence of a velar sound within the word.
14.2 Backing Velarization
Backing velarization involves a sound moving backward in the mouth and becoming more like a velar sound due to the influence of a velar sound in a neighboring word.
15. Glottalization
Glottalization is a phonological process in which sounds acquire characteristics of glottal consonants.
15.1 Ejective Glottalization
Ejective glottalization occurs when a sound becomes glottalized, acquiring the properties of an ejective sound. For example, “stop” pronounced as “stoʔp.”
15.2 Implosive Glottalization
Implosive glottalization involves a sound acquiring the properties of an implosive due to glottalization. An example is “black” pronounced as “bl?k.”
16. Fortition
Fortition is a phonological process in which sounds become stronger or more constricted.
16.1 Aspiration Fortition
Aspiration fortition occurs when a sound becomes more aspirated, with a stronger burst of air. For instance, “pot” pronounced as “pʰot.”
16.2 Spirantization Fortition
Spirantization fortition involves a sound becoming more like a fricative, acquiring a stronger and more prolonged airflow. An example is “tune” pronounced as “ʃun.”
17. Lenition
Lenition is the opposite of fortition, where sounds become weaker or less constricted.
17.1 Fricative Lenition
Fricative lenition occurs when a sound becomes more like a fricative, losing its plosive or stop quality. For example, “dime” pronounced as “ða?m.”
17.2 Approximant Lenition
Approximant lenition involves a sound becoming more like an approximant, losing its fricative quality. An example is “father” pronounced as “fɑð?r.”
18. Final Devoicing
Final devoicing is a phonological process in which a voiced sound becomes voiceless at the end of a word.
18.1 Voiced to Voiceless Devoicing
Voiced to voiceless devoicing occurs when a voiced sound at the end of a word becomes voiceless. For instance, “cab” pronounced as “kæp.”
18.2 Voiceless to Voiced Devoicing
Voiceless to voiced devoicing involves a voiceless sound at the end of a word becoming voiced. An example is “bag” pronounced as “bæɡ.”
19. Initial Voicing
Initial voicing is a phonological process in which a voiceless sound becomes voiced at the beginning of a word.
19.1 Voiceless to Voiced Initial Voicing
Voiceless to voiced initial voicing occurs when a voiceless sound at the beginning of a word becomes voiced. For example, “pin” pronounced as “bin.”
19.2 Voiced to Voiceless Initial Voicing
Voiced to voiceless initial voicing involves a voiced sound at the beginning of a word becoming voiceless. An example is “gate” pronounced as “k?ɛt.”
20. Gliding
Gliding is a phonological process in which a vowel sound becomes more like a glide or a semivowel.
20.1 Liquid Gliding
Liquid gliding occurs when a vowel becomes more like a liquid sound (i.e., /r/ or /l/). For instance, “floor” pronounced as “flɔr.”
20.2 Vowel Gliding
Vowel gliding involves a vowel sound becoming more like a glide or semivowel. An example is “goat” pronounced as “go?t.”
21. Epenthetic Vowels
Epenthetic vowels are vowels that are inserted between consonants to facilitate pronunciation.
21.1 Prevocalic Epenthesis
Prevocalic epenthesis occurs when a vowel is inserted before another vowel sound. For example, “idea” pronounced as “iˈdɪə.”
21.2 Postvocalic Epenthesis
Postvocalic epenthesis involves a vowel being inserted after another vowel sound. An example is “coast” pronounced as “ko?st.”
22. Debuccalization
Debuccalization is a phonological process where a consonant becomes more like a glottal sound.
22.1 Fricative Debuccalization
Fricative debuccalization occurs when a fricative sound becomes more like a glottal fricative. For instance, “thought” pronounced as “θa?t.”
22.2 Affricate Debuccalization
Affricate debuccalization involves an affricate sound becoming more like a glottal stop. An example is “church” pronounced as “tʃɜ?tʃ.”
23. Rhotacization
Rhotacization is a phonological process in which a non-rhotic sound becomes more like a rhotic sound (/r/).
23.1 Rhotic Vowel Rhotacization
Rhotic vowel rhotacization occurs when a non-rhotic vowel becomes more like a rhotic vowel due to the influence of an /r/ sound. For example, “car” pronounced as “kɑr.”
23.2 Non-Rhotic Vowel Rhotacization
Non-rhotic vowel rhotacization involves a non-rhotic vowel becoming more like a rhotic vowel in the presence of an /r/ sound. An example is “bird” pronounced as “b?rd.”
24. Labial Constriction
Labial constriction is a phonological process where the lips play a significant role in shaping the sound.
24.1 Rounded Vowel Labial Constriction
Rounded vowel labial constriction occurs when a rounded vowel (/u/ or /o/) is pronounced with extra lip rounding. For instance, “boot” pronounced as “bʊ?t.”
24.2 Unrounded Vowel Labial Constriction
Unrounded vowel labial constriction involves an unrounded vowel (/i/ or /ɛ/) being pronounced with slight lip rounding. An example is “bit” pronounced as “bɪ?t.”
25. Glottal Replacement
Glottal replacement is a phonological process where a sound is replaced by a glottal sound.
25.1 Glottal Stop Replacement
Glottal stop replacement occurs when a sound is replaced by a glottal stop (/ʔ/). For example, “button” pronounced as “b?t?n.”
25.2 Glottal Fricative Replacement
Glottal fricative replacement involves a sound being replaced by a glottal fricative (/h/). An example is “house” pronounced as “haʊs.”
It’s essential to identify and address phonological disorders early, as they can impact a child’s communication and social development. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) are professionals who specialize in diagnosing and treating speech sound disorders. They work with individuals to improve their speech sound production through various therapeutic techniques and exercises.
References:
⇒ Articulation and Phonological disorder Speech Sound Disorders in Children 8th Edition – John E Bernthal [Book]
⇒ Assessment in Speech-Language Pathology A Resource Manual 5th Edition, Kenneth G. Shipley, Julie G. McAfee [Book]
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Phonological Disorder and Types of Phonological Processes